WHO GUIDELINES FOR THE
SAFE USE OF WASTEWATER,
EXCRETA AND GREYWATER
VOLUME IV
EXCRETA AND GREYWATER USE IN AGRICULTURE
GUIDELINES FOR THE SAFE USE OF
WASTEWATER, EXCRETA AND GREYWATER
Volume 4
Excreta and greywater use in agriculture
ii
WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater / World
Health Organization.
v. 1. Policy and regulatory aspects — v. 2. Wastewater use in agriculture
— v. 3. Wastewater and excreta use in aquaculture — v. 4. Excreta and
greywater use in agriculture.
1. Water supply. 2. Water supply - legislation. 3. Agriculture. 4. Aquaculture.
5. Sewage. 6. Wastewater treatment plants. 7. Guidelines. I. World Health
Organization. II. Title: Safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater. III.
Title: Policy and regulatory aspects. IV. Title: Wastewater use in agriculture.
V. Title: Wastewater and excreta use in aquaculture. VI. Title: Excreta and
greywater use in agriculture.
ISBN 92 4 154686 7 (set) (NLM classification: WA 675)
ISBN 92 4 154682 4 (v. 1)
ISBN 92 4 154683 2 (v. 2)
ISBN 92 4 154684 0 (v. 3)
ISBN 92 4 154685 9 (v. 4)
© World Health Organization 2006
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Printed in France.
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CONTENTS
List of acronyms and abbreviations .....................................................................vi
Preface ....................................................................................................................vii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................ix
Executive summary ............................................................................................. xiii
1. Introduction .........................................................................................................1
1.1 Objectives and general considerations ...........................................................2
1.2 Target audience and defi nitions ......................................................................3
1.3 International guidelines and national standards .............................................3
1.3.1 National standards .................................................................................3
1.3.2 Food exports ..........................................................................................4
1.4 Factors that affect sustainability in sanitation ................................................4
1.4.1 Health and hygiene ................................................................................4
1.4.2 Environment and resource use ...............................................................5
1.4.3 Economy ................................................................................................5
1.4.4 Sociocultural aspects and use ................................................................5
1.4.5 Technology function ..............................................................................5
1.5 Driving forces .................................................................................................6
1.5.1 Water scarcity, stress and degradation ...................................................6
1.5.2 Population growth and food production ................................................7
1.5.3 Excreta and greywater as resources .......................................................8
1.5.4 Millennium Development Goals ..........................................................15
2. The Stockholm Framework..............................................................................19
2.1 A harmonized approach to risk assessment/management .............................19
2.2 Elements of the Stockholm Framework .......................................................20
2.3 Assessment of environmental exposure .......................................................21
2.4 Assessment of health risk .............................................................................22
2.5 Tolerable risk and health-based targets ........................................................24
2.5.1 Tolerable risk .......................................................................................25
2.5.2 Health-based targets .............................................................................25
2.6 Risk management .........................................................................................26
2.7 Public health status .......................................................................................27
3. Assessment of health risk..................................................................................29
3.1 Health benefi ts ..............................................................................................29
3.2 Excreta-related infections .............................................................................30
3.2.1 Pathogens in faeces. .............................................................................31
3.2.2 Pathogens in urine ................................................................................34
3.2.3 Pathogens in greywater ........................................................................36
3.3 Pathogen survival in faeces, urine and greywater ........................................37
3.3.1 Survival in faeces .................................................................................37
3.3.2 Survival in urine ..................................................................................39
3.3.3 Faecal load and survival of faecal pathogens in greywater .................41
3.4 Survival in soils and on crops .......................................................................42
3.5 Epidemiological and risk-based evidence ....................................................44
3.6 Quantitative microbial risk analysis .............................................................49
3.6.1 Example of risk calculation for a greywater scenario .........................49
3.6.2 Example of risk calculation for collection and use of diverted
human urine ..................................................................................................51
3.6.3 Example of risk calculation for stored but otherwise untreated excreta ...... 55
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4. Health-based targets .........................................................................................59
4.1 Type of targets applied .................................................................................60
4.2 Tolerable burden of disease and health-based targets ..................................60
4.3 Microbial reduction targets...........................................................................64
4.4 Verifi cation monitoring .................................................................................66
4.4.1 Treatment of excreta and greywater ....................................................67
4.4.2 Other health protection measures ........................................................67
4.4.3 Excreta in small systems ......................................................................68
4.4.4 Operational monitoring for urine in large- and small-scale systems ...70
5. Health protection measures ..............................................................................73
5.1 Specifi c considerations for exposure control in the use of urine, faeces
and greywater ...............................................................................................74
5.1.1 Exposure control: general principles ...................................................75
5.1.2 Exposure control at agricultural sites or site of use. ............................75
5.1.3 Post-harvest exposure control. .............................................................78
5.2 Technical measures .......................................................................................79
5.2.1 On-site sanitation systems ...................................................................79
5.2.2 Handling and transport of excreta and sludge .....................................88
5.2.3 Treatment of blackwater and septic tank/faecal sludge .......................90
5.2.4 Greywater ............................................................................................93
6. Monitoring and system assessment ...............................................................101
6.1 Monitoring functions ..................................................................................101
6.2 System assessment .....................................................................................102
6.3 Validation ....................................................................................................102
6.4 Operational monitoring ..............................................................................104
6.5 Verifi cation .................................................................................................106
6.6 Small systems .............................................................................................107
6.7 Other types of monitoring ..........................................................................107
7. Sociocultural aspects .......................................................................................109
7.1 Perceptions of excreta and greywater use ..................................................109
7.2 Food-related determinants ..........................................................................111
7.3 Behavioural change and cultural factors ....................................................111
7.4 Convenience factors and dignity issues ......................................................113
7.5 Gender aspects on use of excreta and greywater ........................................114
8. Environmental aspects ....................................................................................117
8.1 Impacts on soil ............................................................................................117
8.1.1 Metals ................................................................................................118
8.1.2 Persistent organic compounds ...........................................................119
8.1.3 Salinization ........................................................................................120
8.2 Impacts on water bodies .............................................................................121
9. Economic and fi nancial considerations .........................................................123
9.1 Economic feasibility ...................................................................................123
9.1.1 Cost–benefi t analysis .........................................................................123
9.1.2 Costs and benefi ts ..............................................................................124
9.1.3 Multiple-objective decision-making processes ..................................125
9.1.4 Empirical examples of cost analyses for reuse systems ....................125
9.2 Financial feasibility ....................................................................................127
9.3 Market feasibility .......................................................................................132
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10. Policy aspects .................................................................................................133
10.1 Policy ............................................................................................................133
10.1.1 International policy ..........................................................................134
10.1.2 National greywater and excreta use policies ...................................134
10.1.3 Greywater and excreta in integrated water resources management .135
10.2 Legislation ................................................................................................135
10.2.1 Institutional roles and responsibilities .............................................136
10.2.2 Other roles and responsibilities .......................................................139
10.2.3 Rights of access ...............................................................................142
10.2.4 Land tenure ......................................................................................142
10.2.5 Public health ....................................................................................142
10.3 Regulation ................................................................................................142
10.4 Development of a national policy framework ..........................................143
10.4.1 Defi ning objectives ..........................................................................144
10.4.2 Analysis of the existing policy framework ......................................144
10.4.3 Development of action plans ...........................................................146
10.4.4 Research ...........................................................................................148
11. Planning and implementation ......................................................................149
11.1 Adopting an appropriate planning approach .............................................149
11.2 Local project planning: specifi c considerations........................................151
11.2.1 Participatory approaches ..................................................................151
11.2.2 Treatment .........................................................................................152
11.2.3 Crop restriction ................................................................................153
11.2.4 Application .......................................................................................153
11.2.5 Human exposure control ..................................................................153
11.2.6 Costs .................................................................................................154
11.2.7 Technical aspects..............................................................................155
11.2.8 Support services ...............................................................................156
11.2.9 Training ............................................................................................156
References. ...........................................................................................................157
Annex 1: Glossary of terms used in Guidelines................................................177
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LIST OF ACRONYMS AND
ABBREVIATIONS
vii
PREFACE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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1
1
INTRODUCTION
10. Policy aspects
11. Planning and
implementation
4. Health-based
targets
5. Health protection
measures
6. Monitoring
and system
assessment
1. Introduction
Guidelines
7. Sociocultural
aspects
8. Environmental
aspects
9. Economic and
financial
considerations
Other
information
2. Stockholm
Framework
3. Assessment of
health risk
Supporting
evidence
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THE STOCKHOLM FRAMEWORK
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Health-based
targets
Basic control
approaches
Water/waste
quality objectives
Other management
objectives
Define measures and interventions
(requirements, specifications) based
on objectives
Assessment of
health risk
Assess
environmental
exposure
Public health
status
Tolerable
health risk
Define key risk points and audit
procedures for overall system
effectiveness
Define analytical verifications (process,
public health)
Health risk management
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Table 2.1 (continued)
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ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH RISK
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Table 3.11 (continued)
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HEALTH-BASED TARGETS
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HEALTH PROTECTION MEASURES
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Table 5.2 (continued)
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MONITORING AND SYSTEM
ASSESSMENT
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Assemble the team to prepare the risk management plan
Document and describe the system
Undertake a hazard assessment and risk
characterization to identify and understand how risks
can be managed in the system
Assess the existing or proposed system (including a
description of the system and a flow diagram)
Identify control measures —
the means by which risks can be controlled
Define monitoring of control measures —
what limits define acceptable performance and how
these are monitored
Establish procedures to verify that the risk
management plan is working effectively and will meet
the health-based targets
Develop supporting programmes (e.g. training, hygienic
practices, standard operating procedures, upgrade and
improvement, research and development, etc.)
Prepare management procedures (including corrective
actions) for normal and incident conditions
Establish documentation and communication
procedures
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Table 6.2 (continued)
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SOCIOCULTURAL ASPECTS
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ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
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ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL
CONSIDERATIONS
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Box 9.1 (continued)
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POLICY ASPECTS
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Table 10.1 (continued)
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Table 10.3 (continued)
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PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION
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REVoFluEmeR 4: EExNcreCta aEndS greywater use in agriculture
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Glossary of terms used in Guidelines
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Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater
The third edition of the WHO Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater,
excreta and greywater has been extensively updated to take account of
new scientific evidence and contemporary approaches to risk management.
The revised Guidelines reflect a strong focus on disease prevention and
public health principles.
This new edition responds to a growing demand from WHO Member
States for guidance on the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater
in agriculture and aquaculture. Its target audience includes environmental
and public health scientists, researchers, engineers, policy-makers and
those responsible for developing standards and regulations.
The Guidelines are presented in four separate volumes: Volume 1: Policy
and regulatory aspects; Volume 2:Wastewater use in agriculture; Volume 3:
Wastewater and excreta use in aquaculture; and Volume 4: Excreta and
greywater use in agriculture.
Volume 4 of the Guidelines focuses exclusively on the safe use of excreta
and greywater in agriculture. Recent trends in sanitation, including ecological
sanitation, are driven by rapid urbanization. The momentum created by the
Millennium Development Goals is resulting in dramatic changes in human
waste handling and processing. New opportunities enable the use of human
waste as a resource for pro-poor agricultural development, particularly in
periurban areas. Best practice to minimize associated health risks is at the
heart of this volume.
ISBN 92 4 154685 9
世衛(wèi)組織準(zhǔn)則
廢水的安全使用，
污水和灰水
第四卷
污水和灰水在農(nóng)業(yè)中使用
指導(dǎo)原則的安全使用
廢水，污水和灰水
第4卷
農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
二
世界衛(wèi)生組織圖書館公開數(shù)據(jù)
世衛(wèi)組織的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水/世界指引
世界衛(wèi)生組織。
V 1.政策和監(jiān)管方面 - V2，農(nóng)業(yè)廢水利用
- 水產(chǎn)養(yǎng)殖v3，廢水和排泄物的使用 - V4，糞便和
在農(nóng)業(yè)中水的使用。
1，供水。 2，供水 - 立法。 3，農(nóng)業(yè)。 4，水產(chǎn)養(yǎng)殖。
5，污水。 6，污水處理廠。 7，指導(dǎo)。一，世界衛(wèi)生
組織。
二。標(biāo)題：安全使用的廢水，污水和灰水。
三。
二。標(biāo)題：安全使用的廢水，污水和灰水。
三。
標(biāo)題：政策和監(jiān)管方面的問題。四。標(biāo)題：農(nóng)業(yè)廢水利用。
五，標(biāo)題：污水和水產(chǎn)養(yǎng)殖排泄物中使用。六。標(biāo)題：糞便和
在農(nóng)業(yè)中水的使用。
ISBN9241546867臺（套）（NLM分類：WA675）
ISBN9241546824（五1）
ISBN9241546832（第2）
ISBN9241546840（3節(jié)）
ISBN9241546859（4節(jié)）
©世界衛(wèi)生組織2006年
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印在法國。
三
目錄
縮略語一覽表.............................................第六........................
前言 ....................................................................................................................vii
致謝................................................. ............................................... IX
執(zhí)行摘要................................................第十三.............................................
引言 .........................................................................................................1
1.1目標(biāo)和總體考慮............................................. ..............2
1.2目標(biāo)受眾和DEFI nitions............................................ 3..........................
1.3國際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和國家標(biāo)準(zhǔn)............................................ 0.3
1.3.1國家標(biāo)準(zhǔn)............................................. ....................................3
1.3.2食品出口............................................. .............................................4
影響可持續(xù)發(fā)展的衛(wèi)生1.4因素........................................... 4.....
1.4.1衛(wèi)生和衛(wèi)生............................................ ....................................4
1.4.2環(huán)境和資源利用........................................... ....................5
1.4.3經(jīng)濟.............................................. .................................................. 5
1.4.4社會文化方面和使用........................................... .....................5
1.4.5技術(shù)功能............................................. .................................5
1.5驅(qū)動力............................................... .................................................. 6
1.5.1缺水，壓力和退化......................................... ..........6
1.5.2人口增長和糧食生產(chǎn).......................................... 7......
1.5.3污水和灰水作為資源.......................................... 8.............
1.5.4千年發(fā)展目標(biāo)............................................ ..............15
2，斯德哥爾摩框架............................................. .................................19
2.1統(tǒng)一的方法進行風(fēng)險評估/管理.............................19
斯德哥爾摩框架2.2元............................................ ...........20
2.3評估環(huán)境暴露............................................. ..........21
2.4評估健康風(fēng)險的............................................. ................................22
2.5可承受風(fēng)險和健康目標(biāo).......................................... ..............24
2.5.1可承受風(fēng)險............................................. ..........................................25
2.5.2基于健康的目標(biāo)........................................... ..................................25
2.6風(fēng)險管理............................................... ..........................................26
2.7公共健康狀況.............................................. .........................................27
健康風(fēng)險評估3。............................................ ......................................29
3.1醫(yī)療給付.............................................. ................................................29
3.2排泄物有關(guān)的感染............................................. ................................30
3.2.1病原糞便。 .................................................. ...........................31
3.2.2病原尿............................................ ....................................34
3.2.3病原灰水............................................ ............................36
3.3病原體的存活在糞便，尿液和灰水........................................37
3.3.1存活在糞便中............................................ .....................................37
3.3.2生存尿............................................ ......................................39
3.3.3糞便負(fù)荷和糞便中的病原體灰水生存.................41
3.4生存土壤和作物........................................... ............................42
3.5流行病學(xué)和風(fēng)險為基礎(chǔ)的證據(jù)........................................... .........44
3.6微生物定量風(fēng)險分析............................................. ................49
風(fēng)險計算的灰水場景3.6.1.........................49
風(fēng)險計算在收集和使用3.6.2實例改行
人尿................................................ .................................................. 51
風(fēng)險計算3.6.3實例存儲，但其他排泄物未經(jīng)處理......55
四
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
4，基于健康的目標(biāo)............................................ .............................................59
4.1類型的目標(biāo)應(yīng)用............................................. ....................................60
疾病和4.2耐受負(fù)擔(dān)健康目標(biāo)..................................60
4.3微生物減排目標(biāo).............................................. .............................64
4.4 Verifi陽離子監(jiān)控.............................................. ...................................66
4.4.1處理污水和灰水的.......................................... ..........67
4.4.2其他衛(wèi)生防護措施........................................... .............67
4.4.3排泄物在小系統(tǒng)........................................... ...........................68
4.4.4運行監(jiān)測尿液中的大，小規(guī)模系統(tǒng)... 70
五，醫(yī)療保護措施............................................. .................................73
曝光控制5.1 SPECIFIÇ考慮在利用尿，糞便
和灰水................................................ ...............................................74
5.1.1曝光控制：一般原則.......................................... .........75
5.1.2在農(nóng)業(yè)網(wǎng)站或網(wǎng)站使用的曝光控制。 ............................75
5.1.3收獲后曝光控制。 .................................................. ...........78
5.2技術(shù)措施............................................... ........................................79
5.2.1現(xiàn)場衛(wèi)生系統(tǒng).......................................... .........................79
5.2.2處理糞便和污泥的運輸.....................................88
5.2.3黑水和化糞池/糞便污泥處理.......................90
5.2.4灰水.............................................. ..............................................93
6，監(jiān)測和考核體系............................................ ...................101
6.1監(jiān)控功能............................................... ...................................101
6.2系統(tǒng)評估............................................... ......................................102
6.3驗證 ....................................................................................................102
6.4運行監(jiān)測............................................... ...............................104
6.5 Verifi陽離子............................................... .................................................. 106
6.6小系統(tǒng)............................................... ..............................................107
6.7其他類型的監(jiān)視............................................. .............................107
7，社會文化方面.............................................. .........................................109
7.1感知排泄物和灰水利用........................................... .......109
7.2食品相關(guān)因素............................................. .............................111
7.3行為的改變和文化因素............................................ ........111
7.4便利性因素和尊嚴(yán)的問題............................................ ..........113
對使用排泄物和灰水........................................1147.5性別方面
..............................................8，環(huán)境因素......................................117
8.1影響土壤.............................................. ..............................................117
8.1.1金屬.............................................. .................................................. 118
8.1.2持久性有機物............................................ ...............119
8.1.3鹽漬化.............................................. ..........................................120
8.2影響水體............................................. ................................121
9，經(jīng)濟和金融方面的考慮........................................... ..............123
9.1經(jīng)濟可行性............................................... ....................................123
9.1.1成本給付分析.......................................... ...............................123
9.1.2成本和給付........................................... ...................................124
9.1.3多目標(biāo)決策程序..................................125
成本9.1.4實證實例分析了回用系統(tǒng)....................125
9.2財務(wù)可行性............................................... .....................................127
9.3市場可行性............................................... ........................................132
v
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
10。政策方面.............................................. .................................................. 0.133
10.1政策 ............................................................................................................133
10.1.1國際政策............................................. .............................134
10.1.2國中水和排泄物利用政策...................................134
10.1.3灰水和水資源綜合管理.135排泄物
10.2立法................................................ ................................................135
10.2.1機構(gòu)的角色和責(zé)任........................................... ..136
10.2.2其他角色和責(zé)任........................................... ............139
訪問10.2.3權(quán)利............................................ ...................................142
10.2.4土地使用權(quán)............................................. .........................................142
10.2.5公共衛(wèi)生............................................. .......................................142
10.3條例................................................ ................................................142
10.4發(fā)展的國家政策框架..........................................143
10.4.1寧的Defi目標(biāo)............................................ ..............................144
現(xiàn)有的政策框架10.4.2分析......................................144
行動計劃10.4.3開發(fā)........................................... ................146
10.4.4研究.............................................. .............................................148
11，規(guī)劃和實施............................................. .........................149
11.1采取適當(dāng)?shù)囊?guī)劃方式............................................ 0.149
11.2本地項目規(guī)劃：SPECIFIç事項........................................151
11.2.1參與辦法............................................. .....................151
11.2.2治療.............................................. ...........................................152
11.2.3作物限制............................................. ...................................153
11.2.4應(yīng)用.............................................. .........................................153
11.2.5人力曝光控制............................................ ......................153
11.2.6成本.............................................. .................................................. 0.154
11.2.7技術(shù)方面............................................. .................................155
11.2.8支持服務(wù)............................................. ..................................156
11.2.9培訓(xùn).............................................. ..............................................156
引用。 ...........................................................................................................157
附件1：在準(zhǔn)則中使用的術(shù)語詞匯表......................................... .......177
六
縮略語表和
縮略語
七
前言
八
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
九
致謝
點¯x
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
曦
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
十三
執(zhí)行摘要
十四
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
XV
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
十六
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
十七
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
十八
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
十九
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
XX
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
1
1
引言
10。政策方面
11。規(guī)劃
實施
4，基于健康
目標(biāo)
五，醫(yī)療保障
措施
6，監(jiān)控
和系統(tǒng)
評估
引言
指引
7，社會文化
方面
8，環(huán)境
方面
9，經(jīng)濟和
金融
注意事項
其他
信息
2，斯德哥爾摩
框架
3。評估
健康風(fēng)險
支持
證據(jù)
2
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
3
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
4
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5
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
6
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
7
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8
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9
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10
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11
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12
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
13
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
14
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
15
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
16
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
17
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
18
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
19
第42卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
斯德哥爾摩框架
20
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
基于健康
目標(biāo)
基本控制
方法
水/廢棄物
質(zhì)量目標(biāo)
其他管理
目標(biāo)
定義的措施和干預(yù)措施
根據(jù)（要求規(guī)格）
對目標(biāo)
評估
健康風(fēng)險
評估
環(huán)境
曝光
公共衛(wèi)生
狀態(tài)
可忍受
健康風(fēng)險
定義關(guān)鍵風(fēng)險點和審計
對整個系統(tǒng)的程序
效力
定義分析驗證（過程中，
公共健康）
健康風(fēng)險管理
21
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
表2.1（續(xù)）
22
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
23
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25
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準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
27
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
28
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
29
第43卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
評估衛(wèi)生風(fēng)險
30
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
31
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32
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
33
34
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
35
36
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
37
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38
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
39
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40
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
41
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42
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
43
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
44
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
45
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
46
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
47
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
48
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
表3.11（續(xù)）
49
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
50
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
51
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52
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
53
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54
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
55
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
56
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
57
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58
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
59
第44卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
健康目標(biāo)
60
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61
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第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
63
64
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65
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66
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67
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68
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69
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70
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72
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
73
第45卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
衛(wèi)生防護措施
74
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
75
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
76
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77
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78
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79
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80
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81
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82
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83
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84
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
85
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
表5.2（續(xù)）
86
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87
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
88
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89
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90
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
91
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92
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
93
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94
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
95
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
96
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
97
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
98
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
99
101
第46卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
監(jiān)控和系統(tǒng)
評估
102
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
組裝小組，負(fù)責(zé)編寫風(fēng)險管理計劃
文檔和描述系統(tǒng)
進行危險評估和風(fēng)險
特征識別和了解風(fēng)險
所用的系統(tǒng)進行管理
評估現(xiàn)有或擬議的系統(tǒng)（包括
該系統(tǒng)的說明和流程圖）
確定控制措施 -
通過該風(fēng)險可被控制的裝置
定義監(jiān)測控制措施 -
有什么限制定義可接受的性能，以及如何
這些被監(jiān)測
建立程序以確認(rèn)風(fēng)險
管理計劃的有效運行，將滿足
基于健康的目標(biāo)
開發(fā)支持項目（如培訓(xùn)，衛(wèi)生
實踐，標(biāo)準(zhǔn)作業(yè)程序，升級和
改進，研發(fā)，等等）
準(zhǔn)備管理程序（包括糾正
行動）正常及事故情況
建立文件和通訊
程序
103
104
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
105
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
表6.2（續(xù)）
106
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
107
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
108
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
109
第47卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
社會文化問題
110
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
111
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
112
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
113
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
114
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
115
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
116
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
117
第48卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
環(huán)境問題
118
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
119
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
120
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
121
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
122
123
49卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
經(jīng)濟與金融
注意事項
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
124
125
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
126
127
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
箱9.1（續(xù)）
128
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
129
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
130
131
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
132
133
14卷：農(nóng)業(yè)0排泄物和灰水利用
政策問題
134
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
135
136
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
137
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
138
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
139
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
140
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
141
表10.1（續(xù)）
142
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
143
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
144
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
145
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
表10.3（續(xù)）
146
147
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
148
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
149
第41卷：農(nóng)業(yè)1Excreta和中水利用
規(guī)劃和實施
150
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
151
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
152
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
153
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
154
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
155
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
156
157
REVoFluEmeR4：農(nóng)業(yè)EExNcreCta aEndS中水利用
158
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
159
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
160
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
161
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
162
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
163
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
164
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
165
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
166
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
167
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
168
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
169
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
170
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
171
172
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
173
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
174
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
175
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
176
177
VoluAmne N4：電子Exxc r1eta，并在農(nóng)業(yè)中水利用
術(shù)語表的使用指南
178
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
179
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
180
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
181
第4卷：農(nóng)業(yè)污水和灰水利用
182
準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水，污水和灰水
世衛(wèi)組織準(zhǔn)則的安全使用廢水的第三版，
污水和灰水已被廣泛更新，考慮到
新的科學(xué)證據(jù)和現(xiàn)代的風(fēng)險管理方法。
修訂后的準(zhǔn)則反映強烈的重點放在疾病的預(yù)防和
公眾健康的原則。
這個新版本做出反應(yīng)，即世衛(wèi)組織會員不斷增長的需求
國家有關(guān)安全使用的廢水，污水和灰水指導(dǎo)
在農(nóng)業(yè)和水產(chǎn)養(yǎng)殖業(yè)。它的目標(biāo)受眾包括環(huán)境
和公共衛(wèi)生的科學(xué)家，研究人員，工程師，決策者和
那些負(fù)責(zé)制定標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和法規(guī)。
該指引載于四個不同的卷：卷1：政策
和監(jiān)管方面的問題;第2卷：農(nóng)業(yè)廢水利用;第3卷：
在水產(chǎn)養(yǎng)殖廢水和糞便使用;和第4卷：糞便和
在農(nóng)業(yè)中水的使用。
指引第4卷只關(guān)注安全使用糞便
和灰水在農(nóng)業(yè)中。最近的趨勢在衛(wèi)生，包括生態(tài)
衛(wèi)生，是通過快速的城市化驅(qū)動。由創(chuàng)造的勢頭
千年發(fā)展目標(biāo)是造成人類巨大的變化
廢物處理和加工。新的機會能夠使用人類
垃圾作為一種資源用于有利于窮人的農(nóng)業(yè)發(fā)展，特別是在
城郊地區(qū)。最大限度地減少相關(guān)的健康風(fēng)險的最佳做法是在
心臟本卷。
ISBN9241546859
Safe Use Excetra.pdf
